Conflict Trends - No. 3/2002
Introduction
The United Nations (UN) secretary-general, Kofi Annan, expressed concern for African security in his November 1995 report entitled 'Improving Preparedness for Conflict Prevention and Peacekeeping in Africa'. In it, he suggested Africa 'should seriously endeavour to develop and enhance its capacity to participate in the field of peacekeeping'. The report was released in the wake of the 1994 Rwandan genocide, when little international response to the crisis was received. Added to this, African governments and armies were besieged with challenges due to a lack of experienced personnel, insufficient material resources and a slow deployment of troops. Consequently, Annan appealed to the international community to help enhance the capacity of African peacekeepers. According to the report, 'the most important element of any peacekeeping operation on the ground is trained and adequately equipped personnel'.
During the African peacekeeping training strategy session held on 26 May 1998 at the UN headquarters, a plan to improve the training capacity of African nations was proposed. One of the long-term goals of the strategy involves the need to develop regional training institutions and joint peacekeeping exercises, as well as partnerships between countries whose contingents require equipment and donors. Added to this, the report from the panel on UN peace operations Known as the Brahimi Report, released in August 2000. identified and addressed the problems with UN peacekeeping missions – problems that individual governments and regional organisations should take heed of. The secretary-general's report of March 2001 – which focused on the protection of civilians in armed conflict – also encouraged governments, in their individual and collective capacities, to pay more attention to aspects that would positively influence the protection of civilians during armed conflict. In part – and as a response to these developments – a number of peacekeeping training centres have been established throughout Africa, which respond to and address some of the issues raised in these reports and sessions. These centres have developed very ambitious objectives for themselves, and although they are not all fully developed and functioning, they are an encouraging development in the quest to improve Africa's capacity to participate in peacekeeping. This article offers a brief profile of some of the most prominent peacekeeping training centres in Africa, as well as the work they are involved in.
The Zambakro Peacekeeping School- Cote D'Ivoire
Under the authority of the Ivorian Army Chief of Staff, Zambakro is made up of two sections: namely a National Centre and an International Centre. The International Centre is the peacekeeping school. The Peacekeeping School of Zambakro was established and inaugurated on 7 June 1999. It acts as one of the three pillars of the French concept RECAMP (Reinforcement of African Peacekeeping Capacities). The aim is to enable African soldiers to participate in international, regional and sub-regional peacekeeping operations. Introduced in 1997, the French RECAMP concept responded to its African partners' desire to enhance their capacity in order to prevent conflict in Africa. It also came about as a result of the observations and recommendations which appeared in the secretary-general's 1995 Report. RECAMP entails providing instruction, training and partial equipment for an African peacekeeping capability at a sub-regional level, together with the aid of donor countries. A significant portion of RECAMP's Ffr 200 million (US$32 million) annual budget has gone towards Zambakro. The peacekeeping school consists of a command and communications centre, classrooms and mess halls. Zambakro's mission is 'to provide Africa with executives and military African experts perfectly trained to be involved in peacekeeping operations planned by international organisations under the mandate of the UN'.
Zambakro accepts students from throughout Africa. The school has Ivorian and French instructors, and other instructors from around Africa are regularly invited to participate in training. They instruct officials and military officers – of captain's rank and above – in international humanitarian and human rights law; logistics; communications; intelligence-gathering; codes of conduct; rules of negotiation; civil affairs; and the role of military observers. Battalion– and brigade-level headquarters training concentrates on operational matters such as area control; logistics; relations within the chain of command; and language training in operational English. Having observed and learnt from the previous limitations of African governments and militaries to adequately translate their commitment to peacekeeping through logistical provision, the school includes logistical training in their curriculum.
Zambakro offers three separate courses: a Multinational Brigade-level HQ Staff Officers Course; a Battalion-level HQ Staff Officers Course; and a Military Observer Officers Training Course. Since the date of its first course in August 1999, the Peacekeeping School of Zambakro has conducted 13 Military Observer courses, eight Staff Officers Courses and four Training-of-Trainers Courses. Courses include modules focusing on the UN structure, as well as UN philosophy regarding peacekeeping, de-mining, refugees and civil-military cooperation (CIMIC).
The school has also responded well to courses organised by other role players, including the sub-regional body known as the Economic Community of the West African States (ECOWAS). It also co-hosted a course on the rights of children during armed conflict – this was done in collaboration with Save the Children, and took place in Sweden in June 2000. By November 2001, more than 400 officers from 33 countries had graduated from the school.
Furthermore, the school has also played host to the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations Training and Assistance Team. A course, entitled the '13th United Nations Training Assistance Team (UNTAT) Peacekeeping Training Course', was conducted from 20 May to 7 June, 2002. It was undertaken by the DPKO Training and Evaluation Service (TES), as well as the Pearson
Peacekeeping Centre, and was supported by the governments of Cote d'Ivoire and France. The TES was responsible for the UN sphere of the course, while the Pearson Centre conducted the disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) aspect, as well as the CIMIC elements. Zambakro is possibly the most prominent French peacekeeping training centre in Africa.
(Contact Details: Ecole de Maintien de la Paix, BP:2061, TAMOUSSOUKRO, Cote d'Ivoire. Tel: 306 43050. E-mail: emp.zamb@aviso.ci)
The Cairo Centre for Training on Conflict Resolution and Peacekeeping in Africa (CCCPA) - Egypt
The CCCPA was established in 1995, and aims to qualify specialised African corps in predicting, managing and solving crises in Africa. Its courses are attended by senior military officers and diplomats, as well as other military officers. Although the courses cater specifically for African participants, the centre has a policy of diversifying its resource person base from other countries on the continent and beyond – including representatives from the UN and OAU. The focus and methodology of the courses are not exclusively academic in nature. They are, in fact, mostly geared towards experiential learning.
The uniqueness of the Cairo centre lies in the fact that it combines training in peacekeeping and preventive diplomacy within a single course, although the focus varies depending on the composition of the trainees and their training needs. The CCCPA's intention is to train 200 students on four courses each year. The aim is also to bring together students from both Francophone and Anglophone countries. The idea is that they attend the same courses, with a view to enhancing cooperation, while at the same time providing the identical level and amount of training to both linguistic constituencies on the continent. The centre is also developing cooperative arrangements with other peacekeeping/conflict resolution institutions throughout the continent (and beyond) in an effort to ensure its outputs meet world standards. There is a protocol between the ministries of foreign affairs and defence that requires the capacities of both ministries to be utilised for the presentation of courses.
Courses offered include an advanced course in Peacekeeping Operations for Senior Officers; a training session on Preventive Diplomacy; a UN Training-of-Trainers Course; and a Military Observers Course. The curriculum includes aspects such as preventive diplomacy; peace-building; disarmament; peacekeeping; conflict analysis; negotiation; and humanitarian law. The CCCPA operates in cooperation with the OAU/AU, as well as with African and international centres of similar activities.
(Contact Details: Amb. Dr. Mahmoud Farghal Director, CCCPA, Egyptian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1 Omar Makram St Tahrir Sq. Cairo, Egypt. Tel: 202 79 50 957. Fax: 202 79 47 990
)
Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre - Ghana
Ghana is perceived to possess much peacekeeping experience, with its peacekeepers having served in many peacekeeping missions. Ghanaians have served in 29 UN peacekeeping operations. They also served as part of ECOMOG in Liberia and Sierra Leone. It was on this basis that Ghana conceived of establishing a centre of excellence in 1998. The Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre (KAIPTC) was established in order for the country to share its experience and expertise with the rest of Africa.
Training provided at the centre has a specialist nature, as it provides core skills training in peace support operations (PSO) for units and selected participants. Courses available include a Core Skills Course for junior officers and SNCOs; a Military Observer Course; a Military Police Course; a Logistics Course; and a Staff Officer's Training Course.
At the inaugural meeting of the ECOWAS Defence and Security Commission in July 2000, the Ghana centre was designated as one ECOWAS' Monitoring Observer Group Standby Units – there is only one other training establishment in the sub-region that has been assigned this responsibility. At the commissioning, Kofi Annan remarked that 'Africa needs well-trained and well-equipped peacekeepers to meet the challenge of the crisis in Africa…outside governments are exploring ways to help Africans improve their peacekeeping capacity…I believe this centre can play an important role in facilitating such assistance. I trust that donor countries will seize this opportunity to provide the necessary support, so that Ghana's vast experience in peacekeeping is used to the benefit of Africa and, ultimately, to the cause of world peace'. With this support and linkage to the sub-regional body, the centre will play a crucial role in facilitating the cross-fertilisation of peacekeeping experiences gleaned from a fertile peacekeeping-oriented region.
(Contact Details: KAIPTC c/o General HQ, Burma Camp-ACCRA, Ghana. Tel: 233 21 774734. Fax: 233 21774734.)
SADC Regional Peacekeeping Training Centre (RPTC)
Southern Africa, like most of Africa, is faced with both economic and political problems, and the Southern African Development Community (SADC) has evolved in such a way that its purpose is now to address some of these issues. Under the auspices of the Inter-state Defence and Security Committee (ISDSC), the SADC aims to achieve regional security cooperation, and its operations sub-committee aims to enhance cooperation among members within the area – the ultimate aim is to create effective peacekeeping capacity within the region. A regional peacekeeping capacity in southern Africa has always been considered an important facet in order for the sub-region to contribute to resolving its problems.
It has been recognised that training cooperation between forces in southern Africa is an essential element in order to enhance peacekeeping capacities. It would also enable the region to respond more quickly and effectively to conflicts. In the background of a number of training cooperation endeavours, a SADC Regional Peacekeeping Training Centre (RPTC) was established in Harare in 1997, with Danish funding. On 14 May 1997, the governments of Denmark and Zimbabwe signed an agreement, which resulted in Denmark funding most of the activities at the centre. The RPTC has been the most advanced peacekeeping centre. It has run the most courses and is the only centre that has official legal regional status. The mission of the RPTC is to study the theory and practice of peace support operations, and to coordinate peace support training within the SADC region, as mandated by the ISDSC. During the first three years, part of the Danish funding was allocated to the actual construction of a centre building, which consists of an auditorium, syndicate rooms and office facilities. The building was completed in mid-1999, when the RPTC was disengaged from the Zimbabwe Staff College.
The RPTC conducts several typical peacekeeping courses, intended not only for officers of all ranks and functions, but also for civilians. Courses include UN modules designed for military observers; staff officers; commanders; company commanders; and logistics officers. A UN Trainers Course is also offered. Besides the UN courses, an ACCORD Advanced Conflict Management Course for Peacekeepers; a peacekeeping workshop for specialist officers and civilians; and a training seminar with the United Nations Institute for Training and Research have also been conducted. The courses have the capacity to instruct 40-50 participants. However, the presentation of UN courses is the main activity of the RPTC. Since 1995, this activity has constantly expanded from one annual course in 1995, to seven in 2001. During the centre's first phase (1995-1999), 12 courses were organised and 520 people were trained – all of whom were from SADC countries, as well as other African countries. Since November 2000, the RPTC has run four courses, having trained 135 students in total. In the spirit of regional cooperation, the staff compliment at the centre includes officers from the broad spectrum of SADC member states. By maintaining a 'clearing house' function, the RPTC keeps a record of all persons who have attended training. It also keeps a record of other peacekeeping activities within the region. One of the immediate objectives of the RPTC is to assist in the planning of any SADC peacekeeping formation. It also assists in the formulation of SADC peace support exercises. The RPTC has contributed to the planning, preparation and execution of two multinational peacekeeping exercises within the region.
(Contact Details: SADC RPTC Private Bag 7735, Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe. Tel: 263 4 700768. Fax: 263 4 737330. E-mail . Web: )
Peace Support Training Centre, Defence Staff College - Kenya
The Defence Staff College of Kenya plays host to the Peace Support Training Centre (PSTC), which was established in August 2001. Kenya has extensive experience in peacekeeping, and the PSTC aims to contribute to East African peacekeeping capacity, as well as peacekeeping capacity elsewhere. After Nigeria, Kenya is currently the second largest troop contributing country in Africa. To date, Kenya has contributed to 17 UN peace operations in Africa and abroad.
In their peacekeeping training, emphasis is placed on providing troops with a thorough knowledge of the environment and background to a conflict prior to deployment. The importance of training the military in human rights is also emphasised. Consequently, International Humanitarian Law is built into all training programmes, at all levels. Dedicated peace operations training consists of approximately three months pre-deployment training for all units and personnel. The emphasis is on re-orientation, impartiality, negotiation and mediation.
The PSTC's vision is to provide the East African community with a regional school for the training of peacekeepers. The PSTC has international cooperation from the UN, as well as from the governments of the United Kingdom and the United States of America. Its mandate is to train senior military officers, from throughout Africa, in peacekeeping missions. The centre hosts 40 students at a time, with the focus being on mid-level officers responsible for training their units. Courses offered at the PSTC include a PSO Foundation Seminar; a Military Observers Course; a Staff Officers Course; and an advanced programme for all ranks of officers, from lieutenant colonels to brigadiers. According to commander of the staff college, Major General Julius Karange, 'the goal is to prepare young officers for peacekeeping missions and to standardise training across armies. The purpose of the courses on offer is to concentrate on becoming a UN-certified centre of excellence for training in the region'.
(Contact Details: PSTC, Defence Staff College, PO Box 24233, Karen. Tel: 02 254 884621. Fax: 02 254 577621. E-mail: pstc@today.co.ke)
Conclusion
The responsibility to respond to conflict, and maintain global peace and security, is one of the key challenges facing members of the international community, particularly in Africa. The change in gear – towards emphasising and relying on a sub-regional response – is more relevant to this era of African responses to conflict. The inauguration of the African Union (AU), and the conceptual and policy focus on sub-regional organisations undertaking most conflict management efforts, is evidence of this reality. Without a doubt, the centres outlined above will form the operational basis for Africa's response to this reality.
Besides the specific peacekeeping training centres mentioned previously, most other countries in Africa also conduct peacekeeping training within their departments of defence. Some even include it in the general training of their defence forces at their respective staff colleges. For example, pre-deployment training for peace operations is conducted in Botswana, under the authority of the Botswana Defence Force. In Nigeria, a Centre for Peace Research and Conflict Resolution (CPRCR) was developed in 1996, and operates out of the National War College. The syllabus includes a profile of the mission and host country; briefings on the customs of the host country; a general introduction to the UN's agencies and its peacekeeping philosophy; mine awareness; and rules of engagement. Training courses for personnel – aimed at preparing them for UN peacekeeping operations – are also conducted by Ethiopia, Malawi, Namibia, Senegal, South Africa and Zambia.
The involvement and support of individual governments, through a patronage of sub-regional peace centres, is indicative of the indispensable role they could play in shaping and responding to the peacekeeping needs of sub-regions. Striving for human security; building the capacity to focus on small arms non-proliferation; dealing with child soldiers; tackling the issues of gender and peacekeeping; protecting human rights – all these subjects are central to the ongoing development of these centres.
Notes
Nicky Hitchcock is the Programme Officer for the Peacekeeping Programme at ACCORD.